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Monday 13 January 2014
Sunday 12 January 2014
Thursday 12 December 2013
STATUS AND ROLE
"STATUS AND ROLE"
The major description of the concepts of status and role as is used in the social sciences was developed by Ralp Linton in his work The Study of Man published in 1936.
Status is used to refer to a position in society which a person holds. The term may be used to refer to all of the different statuses which an individual has such as...Father...Husband...Brother... Son...Banker...etc. In all cultures individual members of the societywill hold many different statuses.
Role is used to refer to the behavior pattern which is associated with a particular status. Each status has its own pattern of behavior which a person occupying that particular status will follow. As a result of the number of statuses which an individual in a society holds, any individual will be "playing" a number of different roles.
Ideal Role is used to refer to a society's concept of what "perfect" behavior should be for a given status.
Actual Role refers to the behavior which a person displays in playing the role associated with a given status as modified by that person...people do not live up to the behavior which is found in the ideal role for a status.
Role conflict is the situation which develops as a result of the behavior patterns of two roles being played by the same person conflicting with one another.
Role expectations are the ways of behaving that society (or an individual) says is correct for a given status.
Role Performance is a person functioning in a role or "Playing the Role"
Role Model- an individual whose behavior in a given role serves to provide an example or standard used by another individual to develop his/her behavior in performing that same role.
Friday 6 December 2013
Role Conflict
What Is Role Conflict?
Role conflict is an element of organizational behavior--the study of how organizations and their members interact-- that describes a situation in which you're forced to take on multiple jobs with multiple roles, or a single job with multiple roles, and are forced to make a choice between them or compromise in a way that does not satisfy either role.
When Role Conflict Occure
Role conflict occurs when the expectations of different roles conflict with one another. For example, a working mother with a sick child. The expectations of the worker is that they go to work. The expectations of the mother is to care for the sick child. The expectations of the worker role and the the expectations of the mother of a sick child role conflict with one another.
Difference Between Role Conflict and Role Strain?
Answer
Role conflict refers to the hostility experienced by different groups in a community such as sports teams, ethnic and religious groups. Role strains on the other are the stresses associated with certain roles and positions in the society.
Role conflict refers to the hostility experienced by different groups in a community such as sports teams, ethnic and religious groups. Role strains on the other are the stresses associated with certain roles and positions in the society.
Types Of Coflict and factors
Religious Role Conflict
Religious role conflict occurs when there are changes in the different dimensions of religious roles. Unfortunately, It is not possible to know if changes in one aspect of one's religious commitment result in religious role conflict. But according to previous research, it in fact suggests it does find some support for the idea that changing beliefs lead to role conflict within religion.
Social Factors Among Low-Income Adults Living
When one has multiple role responsibilities, duties or demands from education, job or family relationships it can be hard to manage. Additionally, the responsibilities are manageable while other times it can be hard to manage especially when one is living in a low income household.
Homeless Men and Gender Role Conflict
Homelessness is a situation that takes a heavy toll on anyone, especially men with children or dependents. Traditional gender roles describe men as being the providers. Homeless men are often unemployed thus lack the means to provide the resources that their family needs. This can cause high levels of distress in men. Homeless men may also become the sole caregiver of their children during homelessness. This can lead to high stress levels in men because they are expected to take on the role of both provider and nurturer. The transition can be very overwhelming.
Role Conflict in Prisons
Prisons are filled predominantly with male inmates. This may be due to the dominant construction of masculinity, which inclines males to criminality and violence. Dominant masculinity is symbolized by control, independence, heterosexuality, aggressiveness, authority, and a capacity for violence in American culture. When a male finds themselves lacking in one of these areas they may be driven to make up for it in another area; such as when a poor, jobless young man tries to show masculinity by carrying a gun or wearing gang related clothing.
Role Conflict Within a Workplace
Working with groups - especially in a work or committee setting - can sometimes result in role conflict if an individual feels that his or her roles are in opposition. These roles may be in conflict for many reasons. For example, the role taker may misunderstand the role sender's prescribed tasks or the miscommunication can occur the other way, as well. If a role taker is seemingly enthusiastic about taking on many tasks within various roles, this may be communicated to the role sender and he or she may be given conflicting role requirements. Role conflict can pair with role ambiguity - a situation in which the expectations of a role are ill-defined - to create role stress, which is detrimental to workplace performance. Role stress has also been linked to decreased job satisfaction and employee turnover
Effect of Role Conflict on Men
Men generally are more restrictive than women when it comes to expressing their emotions. At times this can be a positive attribute; they are typically more level headed. This characteristic is also harmful not only to the individual but to the people with whom he interacts with. When men are not able to verbalize their feelings they can build up within the individual causing large amounts of stress and anxiety. Their inability to express emotions also inhibits their ability to form meaningful connections with the people around them. They may come across as cold or detached. Many men experience gender role conflict in response to deeper issues such as depression, low-self esteem, and anxiety. Recognizing the problem and developing flexible behaviour are two effective ways for men to cope with gender role conflicts.
Wednesday 4 December 2013
POWER AND AUTHORITY
Definition: Authority is a concept whose development is most often associated with the German sociologist Max Weber who saw it as a particular form of power. Authority is defined and supported by the norms of a social system and generally accepted as legitimate by those who participate in it. Most forms of authority are not attached to individuals, but rather to a social position, or status, that they occupy in a social system.
Examples:
We tend to obey the orders of police officers, for example, not because of who they are as individuals, but because we accept their right to have power over us in certain situations and we assume others will support that right should we choose to challenge it.
Max Weber has defined power as, 'the chance of a person or a number of persons to realize their own will in communal action even against the resistance of others who are participating in the action.
So, power is an aspect of social relationships. An individual or group does not hold power in isolation, but hold it in relation to others.
It is these systems of legitimation which are designated as the types of authority. They are:
(a) Traditional
(b) Charismatic
(c) Rational-legal
Elements of Authority
(a) An individual ruler or master ruler or a group of rulers / masters.
(b) An individual / group that is ruled
(c) The will of the ruler to influence the conduct of the ruled which may be expressed through commands.
(d) Evidence of the influence of the rulers in terms of compliance or obedience shown by the ruled.
(e) Direct or indirect evidence which shows that the ruled have internalised and accepted the fact that the ruler's commands must be obeyed.
Tuesday 3 December 2013
Social Interaction
I. Social Interaction in Everyday Life
A. Social Structure: Guides human behavior rather than rigidly determining it
1. A collective reality that exists apart from individuals, constructing the context in which people interact.
2. Social System: An arrangement of relationships existing apart from the specific people involved.
B. Social Interaction: the process by which people act and react in relation to others
1. Acts people perform toward each other and the responses they give in return.
2. Personal Agency: The Ability to have an effect on one's own environment
3. Interaction process: Ways in which partners agree on their goals, negotiate behavior, and distribute resources
4. Social interaction includes a large number of behaviors, so many that in sociology interaction is usually divided into five categories
5. Types of Social Interaction
a. Exchange: The process in which people transfer goods, services, and other items with each other.
• Exchange is a social process whereby social behavior is exchanged for some type of reward for equal or greater value.
b. Competition: Process by which two or more people/groups attempt to obtain the same goal
• Scarce resources are unequally distributed.
• This concept is very familiar and important to Americans considering the idea of competition is built in to our economy and society
• Yet, the jury is still out whether this competition produces the assumed results of the “best rising to the top”
c. Cooperation: The process in which people work together to achieved shared goals
• Usually this involves the giving up of individual goals for group goals
d. Conflict: The process by which people attempt to physically or socially conquer each other.
• Although war is the most obvious example of this, this is done most often in social situations (ex. politics, threats, etc.)
e.Coercion: Process by which people compel other people to do something against their will – based ultimately on force.
• The state usually handles this through official means (police, army, etc.) but individuals use it in social situations as well (parents, friends, lovers – sex)
f. No one type of interaction describes social reality – it involves a mix and match of different ones.
C. Components of Interaction
• As we have discussed many times, people’s actions in society are most always unconscious.
• They are usually based on different linkages we have with society.
1. Status: A recognized social position that an individual occupies
a. A position in society (ex. teacher, daughter, mother, doctor, etc.) that is characterized by certain rights and obligations.
• Statuses can determine how people interact
• We have to be aware of using the wrong interaction when dealing with different statuses
b. Status Set: Consists of all the statuses a person holds at a given time
• The collection of statuses that a person occupies at any one time
c. Ascribed and Achieved Statuses
• Sociology usually distinguishes between two types of statuses: ascribed and achieved
• An Ascribed Status is a social position that someone receives at birth or involuntarily assumes later in life
• A status that cannot be changed by individual effort – we have them whether we want them or not (ex. age, sex, race, ethnicity – religion and class can also be ascribed but may be changed).
• An Achieved Status is a social position that someone assumes voluntarily and that reflects personal ability and effort
• Obtained through individual effort (ex. education and occupation).
• Usually comes out through a combination of effort, ability, and luck.
• In many cases, achieved and ascribed statuses are closely related – men (ascribed) usually have higher incomes and education (achieved).
• Class and Race/Ethnicity also play an important role in our achieved status
d. Master Status: A status that has exceptional importance for social identity, often shaping a person's entire life
• Master Status: One status that is more important than the others
• It has the greatest impact on a person's self-identity and appearance to others.
• People usually organize their lives and identity around it.
• It is their main social identity (ex. occupation, familial, etc.)
2. Role: A role consists of behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status
a. Role: The expected behavior associated with a status
• A status is a social position and a role is the behavior of that position.
• Role expectations are powerful, so powerful that if we diverge to far from what is expected we encounter resistance.
b. Some characteristics of roles:
• Role performance differs from role expectation
• Roles are relational, organizing our behavior toward some other person
• Role Set refers to a number of roles attached to a single status
• A collection of roles associated with a given status
c. Role Conflict and Role Strain
• Role conflict refers to incompatibility among roles corresponding to two or more different statuses
• Incompatibility of different roles played by a single person – or difficult moral choices.
• Competing and conflicting demands stemming from a role set
• It can be reduced by:
• Defining some roles as more important than others
• Setting priorities
• Insulating roles from one another
• Role Strain refers to incompatibility among roles corresponding to a single status
• The attempt to meet incompatible expectations within a single status
• Role Stress: The anxiety produced by being unable to meet all role requirements at the same time.
• Role Exit: The process by which people disengage from social roles that have been central in their lives
• Goffman came up with the concept of Role Distance: This is where we play our roles in society without really meaning it, and with an ulterior motive in mind
• We play our roles with the thoughts in the back of our heads that these actions are diametrically opposed (contrary) to what we really think and believe
• This is the only way human dignity can be maintained within our self-awareness.
• This includes all cases where a role is played deliberately without any inner-identification
• Where the actor has established an inner distance between his consciousness and his role playing
D. Social Construction of Reality: The process by which individuals creatively shape reality through social interaction
1. The Thomas Theorem: states that situations we define as real become real in there consequences
2. Ethnomethodology: a subfield of sociology developed by Harold Garfinkel which studies the way people make sense of their everyday lives
a. This approach is linked to both dramaturgy and symbolic interaction
• But it focuses on the very basic assumptions of everyday life
• We rarely think of these rules or even recognize their existence
• We assume that everyone shares our version of reality and rarely question its underlying assumptions
• Ethnomethodology: The methodology for studying the common understanding of everyday life (Harold Garfinkel)
• Belief that we share a sense of reality with other people by following social rules.
• These rules are unspoken and deeply embedded in our culture – so embedded that we are not aware of their existence.
• His goal – the goal of ethnomethodology is to bring these rules to the surface and determine the effect they have on our behavior.
• Garfinkel attempted to demonstrate these unspoken rules by conducting experiments – breaching experiments.
• Breaching experiment: a procedure whereby the experimenter violates a suspected rule and observes people’s reaction to the violation
• The power of this experiment comes from the fact that it is so simple.
• Something to think about though, are breaching experiments showing the weakness of society – or its strength?
b. Establishes a major point in sociology: Orderly social interaction is only possible if we all abide by social rules that we rarely notice.
3. Exchange Theory
a. Exchange Theory focuses on the exchanges that we perform with one another on a daily basis.
• Although we always think of monetary exchange – there are other kinds of exchange – especially emotional, that allow us to act with one another in an ordered way.
• Norm of Reciprocity: If you do something for a person, they must do something of approximately equal social value in return.
• They may be informal obligations, but people usually take them seriously because people don’t like to owe anybody anything – they would rather have someone owe them.
• If someone continually fails to reciprocate, we usually end the social interaction (lending money, doing favors, sending cards, etc.)
b. Exchange creates complex social relations to the point that whoever is involved in the most profitable exchanges becomes the more powerful
E. Dramaturgy: Developed by Erving Goffman, consists of the definition of social interaction in terms of theatrical performance
1. Goffman’s approach to studying behavior is important because it focuses on the everyday occurrences we experience in life.
a. He is able to show how we gain meaning from social interaction and common situations.
b. Goffman developed an approach he called dramaturgy, where social interaction can be viewed as a series of small plays.
c. Interactions are scripted by the roles of participants.
d. We have these roles because we are socialized to know what others expect our behavior to be in different situations.
e. People become skilled at what role to play and when to play it.
• Patterns begin to develop as to what roles each person plays, making it easier to see how each person deals with certain situations.
2. The Presentation of Self: the effort of an individual to create specific impressions in the minds of others
3. Goffman believed that everyone in society followed a script – these scripts are usually unstated, but everyone in society understands them and they go into making up our ordered interaction in society.
a. The script is a set of rules that everyone must follow in order to deal with particular situations.
• Our role performances are judged the same way dramatic performances are judged by critics.
• We can perform badly or well.
• Goffman noted that people help us perform our roles to the point of ignoring mistakes or problems with our performance.
• We have a need to keep society orderly, thus we let people make mistakes in order to keep society running smoothly (ex. If someone does something embarrassing, we usually ignore it – don’t make a big deal about it – in order to keep going)
• They pretend not to notice so we don’t even get embarrassed
• Studied Non-Observance: Pretending not to notice a mistake in role performance.
b. The dramaturgical approach takes an audience into account when we act in our roles
• Just like in a theater, we have a front region, where we play a role before an audience
• This is where formal (public) and official role-playing is done.
• And a back region, where we play a different role with a different audience.
• This is where informal (private) role-playing is done – setting up for the next performance, rehearsing, relaxing, etc.
c. People engage in impression management, whereby we consciously manipulate props, scenery, costumes, and behavior in attempt to manipulate a situation and other people (ex. job interviews).
d. Nonverbal communication: Consists of communication using body movements, gestures and facial expressions rather than speech
• Most of it is culture specific
• Close attention to non-verbal communication is often an effective way to tell whether someone is telling the truth or not
e. People have called Goffman’s approach overly cynical.
• His use of the idea of a stage play with actors makes it sound like all we do is perform and fool others (like a con-man), but Goffman points out that very few people have the skill to manipulate the situation.
F. Other Things
1. Gender affects personal performance in areas such as:
a. Demeanor
b. Use of Personal Space: the surrounding area over which an individual makes some claim to privacy
c. Staring, smiling, and touching
A. Social Structure: Guides human behavior rather than rigidly determining it
1. A collective reality that exists apart from individuals, constructing the context in which people interact.
2. Social System: An arrangement of relationships existing apart from the specific people involved.
B. Social Interaction: the process by which people act and react in relation to others
1. Acts people perform toward each other and the responses they give in return.
2. Personal Agency: The Ability to have an effect on one's own environment
3. Interaction process: Ways in which partners agree on their goals, negotiate behavior, and distribute resources
4. Social interaction includes a large number of behaviors, so many that in sociology interaction is usually divided into five categories
5. Types of Social Interaction
a. Exchange: The process in which people transfer goods, services, and other items with each other.
• Exchange is a social process whereby social behavior is exchanged for some type of reward for equal or greater value.
b. Competition: Process by which two or more people/groups attempt to obtain the same goal
• Scarce resources are unequally distributed.
• This concept is very familiar and important to Americans considering the idea of competition is built in to our economy and society
• Yet, the jury is still out whether this competition produces the assumed results of the “best rising to the top”
c. Cooperation: The process in which people work together to achieved shared goals
• Usually this involves the giving up of individual goals for group goals
d. Conflict: The process by which people attempt to physically or socially conquer each other.
• Although war is the most obvious example of this, this is done most often in social situations (ex. politics, threats, etc.)
e.Coercion: Process by which people compel other people to do something against their will – based ultimately on force.
• The state usually handles this through official means (police, army, etc.) but individuals use it in social situations as well (parents, friends, lovers – sex)
f. No one type of interaction describes social reality – it involves a mix and match of different ones.
C. Components of Interaction
• As we have discussed many times, people’s actions in society are most always unconscious.
• They are usually based on different linkages we have with society.
1. Status: A recognized social position that an individual occupies
a. A position in society (ex. teacher, daughter, mother, doctor, etc.) that is characterized by certain rights and obligations.
• Statuses can determine how people interact
• We have to be aware of using the wrong interaction when dealing with different statuses
b. Status Set: Consists of all the statuses a person holds at a given time
• The collection of statuses that a person occupies at any one time
c. Ascribed and Achieved Statuses
• Sociology usually distinguishes between two types of statuses: ascribed and achieved
• An Ascribed Status is a social position that someone receives at birth or involuntarily assumes later in life
• A status that cannot be changed by individual effort – we have them whether we want them or not (ex. age, sex, race, ethnicity – religion and class can also be ascribed but may be changed).
• An Achieved Status is a social position that someone assumes voluntarily and that reflects personal ability and effort
• Obtained through individual effort (ex. education and occupation).
• Usually comes out through a combination of effort, ability, and luck.
• In many cases, achieved and ascribed statuses are closely related – men (ascribed) usually have higher incomes and education (achieved).
• Class and Race/Ethnicity also play an important role in our achieved status
d. Master Status: A status that has exceptional importance for social identity, often shaping a person's entire life
• Master Status: One status that is more important than the others
• It has the greatest impact on a person's self-identity and appearance to others.
• People usually organize their lives and identity around it.
• It is their main social identity (ex. occupation, familial, etc.)
2. Role: A role consists of behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status
a. Role: The expected behavior associated with a status
• A status is a social position and a role is the behavior of that position.
• Role expectations are powerful, so powerful that if we diverge to far from what is expected we encounter resistance.
b. Some characteristics of roles:
• Role performance differs from role expectation
• Roles are relational, organizing our behavior toward some other person
• Role Set refers to a number of roles attached to a single status
• A collection of roles associated with a given status
c. Role Conflict and Role Strain
• Role conflict refers to incompatibility among roles corresponding to two or more different statuses
• Incompatibility of different roles played by a single person – or difficult moral choices.
• Competing and conflicting demands stemming from a role set
• It can be reduced by:
• Defining some roles as more important than others
• Setting priorities
• Insulating roles from one another
• Role Strain refers to incompatibility among roles corresponding to a single status
• The attempt to meet incompatible expectations within a single status
• Role Stress: The anxiety produced by being unable to meet all role requirements at the same time.
• Role Exit: The process by which people disengage from social roles that have been central in their lives
• Goffman came up with the concept of Role Distance: This is where we play our roles in society without really meaning it, and with an ulterior motive in mind
• We play our roles with the thoughts in the back of our heads that these actions are diametrically opposed (contrary) to what we really think and believe
• This is the only way human dignity can be maintained within our self-awareness.
• This includes all cases where a role is played deliberately without any inner-identification
• Where the actor has established an inner distance between his consciousness and his role playing
D. Social Construction of Reality: The process by which individuals creatively shape reality through social interaction
1. The Thomas Theorem: states that situations we define as real become real in there consequences
2. Ethnomethodology: a subfield of sociology developed by Harold Garfinkel which studies the way people make sense of their everyday lives
a. This approach is linked to both dramaturgy and symbolic interaction
• But it focuses on the very basic assumptions of everyday life
• We rarely think of these rules or even recognize their existence
• We assume that everyone shares our version of reality and rarely question its underlying assumptions
• Ethnomethodology: The methodology for studying the common understanding of everyday life (Harold Garfinkel)
• Belief that we share a sense of reality with other people by following social rules.
• These rules are unspoken and deeply embedded in our culture – so embedded that we are not aware of their existence.
• His goal – the goal of ethnomethodology is to bring these rules to the surface and determine the effect they have on our behavior.
• Garfinkel attempted to demonstrate these unspoken rules by conducting experiments – breaching experiments.
• Breaching experiment: a procedure whereby the experimenter violates a suspected rule and observes people’s reaction to the violation
• The power of this experiment comes from the fact that it is so simple.
• Something to think about though, are breaching experiments showing the weakness of society – or its strength?
b. Establishes a major point in sociology: Orderly social interaction is only possible if we all abide by social rules that we rarely notice.
3. Exchange Theory
a. Exchange Theory focuses on the exchanges that we perform with one another on a daily basis.
• Although we always think of monetary exchange – there are other kinds of exchange – especially emotional, that allow us to act with one another in an ordered way.
• Norm of Reciprocity: If you do something for a person, they must do something of approximately equal social value in return.
• They may be informal obligations, but people usually take them seriously because people don’t like to owe anybody anything – they would rather have someone owe them.
• If someone continually fails to reciprocate, we usually end the social interaction (lending money, doing favors, sending cards, etc.)
b. Exchange creates complex social relations to the point that whoever is involved in the most profitable exchanges becomes the more powerful
E. Dramaturgy: Developed by Erving Goffman, consists of the definition of social interaction in terms of theatrical performance
1. Goffman’s approach to studying behavior is important because it focuses on the everyday occurrences we experience in life.
a. He is able to show how we gain meaning from social interaction and common situations.
b. Goffman developed an approach he called dramaturgy, where social interaction can be viewed as a series of small plays.
c. Interactions are scripted by the roles of participants.
d. We have these roles because we are socialized to know what others expect our behavior to be in different situations.
e. People become skilled at what role to play and when to play it.
• Patterns begin to develop as to what roles each person plays, making it easier to see how each person deals with certain situations.
2. The Presentation of Self: the effort of an individual to create specific impressions in the minds of others
3. Goffman believed that everyone in society followed a script – these scripts are usually unstated, but everyone in society understands them and they go into making up our ordered interaction in society.
a. The script is a set of rules that everyone must follow in order to deal with particular situations.
• Our role performances are judged the same way dramatic performances are judged by critics.
• We can perform badly or well.
• Goffman noted that people help us perform our roles to the point of ignoring mistakes or problems with our performance.
• We have a need to keep society orderly, thus we let people make mistakes in order to keep society running smoothly (ex. If someone does something embarrassing, we usually ignore it – don’t make a big deal about it – in order to keep going)
• They pretend not to notice so we don’t even get embarrassed
• Studied Non-Observance: Pretending not to notice a mistake in role performance.
b. The dramaturgical approach takes an audience into account when we act in our roles
• Just like in a theater, we have a front region, where we play a role before an audience
• This is where formal (public) and official role-playing is done.
• And a back region, where we play a different role with a different audience.
• This is where informal (private) role-playing is done – setting up for the next performance, rehearsing, relaxing, etc.
c. People engage in impression management, whereby we consciously manipulate props, scenery, costumes, and behavior in attempt to manipulate a situation and other people (ex. job interviews).
d. Nonverbal communication: Consists of communication using body movements, gestures and facial expressions rather than speech
• Most of it is culture specific
• Close attention to non-verbal communication is often an effective way to tell whether someone is telling the truth or not
e. People have called Goffman’s approach overly cynical.
• His use of the idea of a stage play with actors makes it sound like all we do is perform and fool others (like a con-man), but Goffman points out that very few people have the skill to manipulate the situation.
F. Other Things
1. Gender affects personal performance in areas such as:
a. Demeanor
b. Use of Personal Space: the surrounding area over which an individual makes some claim to privacy
c. Staring, smiling, and touching
Social Interaction Assignment
Download Assignment For Social Interaction
What is Social Interaction And Thier Types All About The Details For Social Interaction Related To Socialogy Subject.
